Visa J-1 para estudiar la especialidad médica en USA

Visa J-1 para estudiar la especialidad mà ©dica en USA La visa J-1 permite a los mà ©dicos extranjeros graduados en facultades de medicina fuera de Canad y de Estados Unidos estudiar sus residencias o especializaciones en este à ºltimo paà ­s.   Asimismo, esta visa permite a los mà ©dicos de otros paà ­ses ingresar a Estados Unidos para realizar investigacià ³n avanzada en el mbito de la medicina. Es decir, permite adquirir conocimientos clà ­nicos y no clà ­nicos y esta diferenciacià ³n es muy importante como se ver ms adelante en relacià ³n a la regla de los dos aà ±os. Este artà ­culo explica los requisitos fundamentales para participar en este programa de visa J-1 para alien physician. Por ejemplo, quià ©n puede ser patrocinador,   requisitos de certificacià ³n y para solicitar la visa, cambios de especializacià ³n, cà ³mo llevar a la familia y, por à ºltimo, la famosa regla de los dos aà ±os y cundo no aplica o es posible pedir una excepcià ³n. Finalmente, no confundir con el programa distinto de trainee o prcticas  con visa J-1, en el que tambià ©n pueden participar mà ©dicos, ya que las reglas son distintas. Patrocinador de mà ©dicos para la visa J-1 para especialidad o residencia La Comisià ³n Educativa para Graduados Mà ©dicos Extranjeros (ECFMG, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) es el à ºnico patrocinador reconocido por el gobierno de los Estados Unidos. Y es que de entre todas las visas no inmigrante con las que es posible viajar a Estados Unidos, las J-1 de intercambio tienen, entre sus requisitos, la necesidad de contar con un patrocinador, tambià ©n conocido como esponsorizador, que tiene que estar reconocido oficialmente.   Certificacià ³n de los estudios realizados por los mà ©dicos extranjeros Antes de solicitar la visa, la ECFMG tiene que certificar que el mà ©dico extranjero interesado en una visa J-1 est preparado para participar en un programa de especializacià ³n o investigacià ³n en Estados Unidos. El proceso de certificacià ³n es largo y complejo. Entre los requisitos, ser necesario demostrar los conocimientos mà ©dicos y tambià ©n un alto nivel de inglà ©s, tanto oral como escrito, que se mide mediante los resultados obtenidos en un examen conocido como TOEFL. Tambià ©n es imprescindible aprobar una de las siguientes pruebas: Partes I y II del National Board of Medical Examiners Examinationel Foreign Medical Graduate Examination, Step I y Step IIo el Visa Qualifying Examination (VQE) Todas esas pruebas son gestionadas por ECFMG. Requisitos para solicitar la visa J-1 para mà ©dicos subcategorà ­a alien physician Una vez obtenidos el certificado de la ECFMG y otros requisitos, esta organizacià ³n emite un documento conocido como DS-2919.   Tambià ©n es necesario una declaracià ³n por escrito del gobierno del paà ­s en el que reside el mà ©dico extranjero en el que se afirma que hay una necesidad en dicho paà ­s de doctores especializados en la rama que la que se va a buscar la especializacià ³n. Asimismo, se necesita un contrato u oferta de la institucià ³n en la que se ha sido admitido para realizar la especializacià ³n. Los candidatos extranjeros y los ciudadanos estadounidenses que estudiaron Medicina fuera de EEUU son considerados IMGs. Sus oportunidades durante el proceso que se conoce como Match para ligar candidato con institucià ³n acadà ©mica/hospital son generalmente no tan buenas como las de los graduados en facultades de Estados Unidos, por lo que se recomienda venderse agresivamente con los directores de los programas que interesan para levantar cualquier sospecha que pueda recaer sobre la calidad de sus estudios previos. Una vez que se tienen todos los pasos previos completados, ya se puede solicitar la visa J-1, lo cual se hace en là ­nea completando el formulario DS-160. El tiempo de tramitacià ³n depende del consulado o embajada y tambià ©n de las circunstancias personales del solicitante. Como parte de la tramitacià ³n es necesario pagar la cuota, que no se recupera si la visa no es aprobada. Tambià ©n se pasa por una entrevista en el consulado o embajada y en algà ºn momento del proceso, que varà ­a segà ºn la ubicacià ³n, se tomarn las huellas digitales del solicitante y una foto. Como en todo tipo de visas no inmigrante, las razones por las que puede haber un rechazo de la negacià ³n son muchas, distinguià ©ndose causas que convierten a una persona en inelegible y aquellas que lo convierten en inadmisible.   Si bien en la mayorà ­a de los casos el problema puede surgir porque el candidato no demuestra suficientemente que su intencià ³n no es quedarse en Estados Unidos. Es muy importante poder probar que se va a regresar al paà ­s de origen. Aunque no hay reglas expresas sobre quà © documentos utilizar, es de gran ayuda seguir las reglas generales que se utilizan para este fin cuando se solicita una visa de turista. Visas para familiares para mà ©dicos realizando la residencia en Estados Unidos El cà ³nyuge del solicitante de la visa J-1 y sus hijos solteros que son menores de 21 aà ±os pueden acompaà ±ar al mà ©dico a Estados Unidos. Su visa es una J-2, de dependiente. Para poder solicitarla es necesario solicitar a ECFMG que extienda el patrocinio a estos familiares. Trabajar en Estados Unidos   La finalidad del mà ©dico es especializarse. Para ello obviamente debe realizar prcticas en su campo, por las que ser compensado econà ³micamente. Sin embargo, lo que no puede hacer y est estrictamente prohibido es trabajar fuera del programa. Hacer tal cosa es una violacià ³n migratoria que puede provocar la cancelacià ³n de la visa. Cambios de especialidad mà ©dica Si el mà ©dico con una visa J-1 inicia una especializacià ³n y cambia de parecer y decide que prefiera otra, puede tramitar un cambio de la misma siempre y cuando todavà ­a no tenga completado el segundo aà ±o de la especializacià ³n.   Una vez iniciado el tercer aà ±o ya no es posible ese tipo de cambios. La regla de los dos aà ±os de permanencia fuera de EEUU En principio, los mà ©dicos que participan en un programa J-1 dentro de la categorà ­a de alien physician deben salir de Estados Unidos por dos aà ±os y residir en otro paà ­s durante ese tiempo. Esto NO quiere decir que no puedan viajar a USA   como turistas, quiere decir que no pueden obtener una visa de trabajo de la familia H o de la L o una green card. Esto afecta incluso a las personas casadas de buena fe con un ciudadano americano. En principio, les aplica esa regla. Pero hay excepciones. Por ejemplo, no aplica a los mà ©dicos cuya labor en los Estados Unidos fuera de investigacià ³n, observacià ³n o enseà ±anza y no tuvieran un contacto directo con pacientes. Adems, es posible pedir un permiso conocido como waiver para que no aplica esa regla. Requisitos para la waiver de los dos aà ±os Son 4 las posibilidades para pedir la waiver a la regla de residir dos aà ±os fuera de Estados Unidos al finalizar este programa: Que el Departamento de Salud de uno de los estados solicite una waiver a nombre de un mà ©dico determinado. Hay un mximo de 30 por estado por aà ±o fiscal. Es lo que se conoce como el programa Conrad 30 waiver.Que una agencia del gobierno solicite la waiver.Que se dà © la circunstancia de que si el mà ©dico retornase a su paà ­s de origen que pudiera ser perseguido por razà ³n de su raza, religià ³n u opiniones polà ­ticas.Que estuviera casado con una persona ciudadana americana o residente permanente legal o que tuviera hijos con esos estatus y si el mà ©dico o la doctora tuviera que salir de Estados Unidos se producirà ­a una situacià ³n de extrema dureza para el familiar ciudadano o residente. Opciones para trabajar en USA como mà ©dico al finalizar la especializacià ³n   Tras finalizar el programa y cumplir la regla de los dos aà ±os, si se est obligado a cumplirla, -recordar que los mà ©dicos no clà ­nicos no estn sujetos a ella-, se puede obtener una visa de inmigrante (green card) o una de trabajo. Los mà ©dicos pueden visas L-1 de transfer o H-1B para profesionales. En cuanto a las green card, existen varios caminos para obtenerlos, incluidas las de por razà ³n de trabajo incluyendo la categorà ­a de extranjero de habilidad extraordinaria y la de residencia con waiver por razà ³n de interà ©s nacional. Tener en cuenta que en estos momentos est paralizada la opcià ³n que permità ­a a los doctores interesados en prestar servicio en el Ejà ©rcito a travà ©s del programa  Mavni, que abrà ­a las puertas a la adquisicià ³n de la ciudadanà ­a de un modo inmediato. Finalmente, los mà ©dicos se encuentran entre los profesionales mejor pagados de Estados Unidos, si bien hay notable diferencia segà ºn la especialidad, aà ±os de prctica e, incluso, ubicacià ³n. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Cryptococcus curvatus Essays

Cryptococcus curvatus Essays Cryptococcus curvatus Essay Cryptococcus curvatus Essay Introduction An buttery barm, Cryptococcus curvatus, once named as Apiotrichum curvatum and Candida curvata D, was found to be accumulated more than 60 % [ 1,2,4 ] of it dry weight in the signifier of intracellular lipoid when grown under extra C beginning with restricting growing of N. This accrued lipoid is formed as triglyceride in which the fatso acerb composing is similar to the works seed oil in specific for the chocolate butter equivalents ( CBE ) production. Cocoa butter is widely used in cocoa fabrication which obtained from the seeds of chocolate tree ( theobroma chocolate tree ) . This fat chiefly consist of its chief triacrylglycerol 1,3-disaturated-2-unsatuated triacrylglycerols with high sum of stearic acid ( 32-37 % , C 18:0 ) , palmitic acid ( 23-30 % , C16:0 ) and oleic acid ( 30-37 % , C18:1 ) . The monetary value of chocolate butter is really fluctuating and even exceeds $ 8000/ton in early 1980s. The high monetary value made this yeast oil becomes an attractive market. It was found that the fatty acid profile of Cryptococcus curvatus, it has low per centum of stearic acid C18:0 ( 12-15 % ) , and high per centum of oleic acid C18:1 ( 44-49 % ) . The undertaking of production of executable yeast oil as CBE is to increase the stearic acid content and guarantee the right distribution of fatty acerb profile of the ensuing triacylglycerol that warrant this yeast oil run into the rigorous demand of CBE in cocoa. In effort to successfully commercialize barm oils, the production has to accomplish feasibleness and profitableness. These factors in individual cell oil ( SCO ) production chiefly depend on whether the procedure can bring forth high valued lipoids and fatty acid with specific physical, chemical and nutritionary belongingss. [ 1-2 ] Meanwhile, the procedure cost in agitation is besides of import that determined by substrate and fermentor cost. Therefore, the lipid production rate and output should be every bit high as possible with the usage of the inexpensive C beginning like whey permeate in order to accomplish economic sciences executable. [ 1 ] Biochemistry Lipid accretion in Cryptococcus curvatus begins when foods ( normally nitrogen ) is exhausted with extra C beginning ( normally in the glucose signifier ) in the medium. Excess glucose is assimilated continuously and converted to triacylglycerols. Under the limited N supply, the cells can no longer proliferate and unable to turn and split. Lipid may roll up in the bing cells continuously, cells rich in lipoid. ( a ) ( B ) Fig3. ( a ) Cryptococcus curvatus, lipid droplet lend 70 % of its cell weight ( B ) Extracted oil from Cryptococcus curvatus in negatron micrograph with boundary beds within the oil droplets ( triacylglycerol ) . The first biological reaction after nitrogen exhaustion is the AMP deaminase activation: AMP a† Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ IMP + NH4+ The rapid lessening in AMP concentration accompany with the alteration in O2 ingestion and CO2 end product of the cells. This will decelerate down or even discontinue the activities of isocitrate ( NAD+ -dependent ) dehydrogenase ( ICDH ) within chondriosome. The enzymatic activity is greatly influenced by AMP concentration. However, this activity is independent on the non-oleaginous barm. Nitrogen exhaustion consequence in the addition of AMP deaminase and lessening of AMP concentration with effect of rapid bead in ICDH activity. Isocitrate is no longer metabolized efficaciously and so equilibrate with citrate though aconitase. Isocitrate i?i?i?z Aconitate i?i?i?z Citate Citrate is transported outside the chondriosome and cleaved by an enzyme Adenosine triphosphate: citrate lyase ( ACL ) in the cytol, which is absent in the non-oleaginous barm. Citrate + ATP + CoA a† Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Acetyl-CoA + ADP + Pi + oxalacetate The citrate cleaving enzyme, ACL is really important in fatty acerb synthesis. If cell absent from ACL like non-oleaginous micro-organisms, it is unable to roll up lipoid. Fig. Pathway of lipid accumlation in Cryptococcus curvatus The oxalacetate formed in above reaction converted into malate instantly by the enzyme, malate dehydrogenase. Malate + NADP+ a† Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ pryuvate + NADPH + CO2 Fatty acerb synthesis requires the uninterrupted supply of both acetyl-CoA and NADPH ( cut downing power ) . Acetyl-CoA are used to make the C edifice unit which the turning long fatty acyl concatenation is derived from acetyl-CoA. NADPH are used to cut down the turning long fatty acyl concatenation. Fatty acerb synthesis in Cryptococcus curvatus follows fatty acerb synthase ( FAS ) path. Elongase act on palmitic acid ( 16:0 ) to bring forth stear ( 18:0 ) . I-9 desaturase act as enzyme to catalyse the dual bond interpolation between C9 and C10 in fatty acid concatenation. Stearic acid ( 18:0 ) is converted to oleic acid ( C18:1 n-9 ) . Meanwhile, I-12 desaturase infix a dual bond between C12 and C13 in mono-unsaturated fatty acid concatenation. It facilitate the transition of oleic acid ( C18:1 n-9 ) to linoleic acid ( 18:2 n-6 ) . Production Agitation is utilized in the growing of micro-organisms and its biogenesis. Fermentater provides an effectual reactor to accomplish optimum conditions of micro-organisms by seting different parametric quantities. Within fermenter, there are few dimensions to optimise lipid production of Cryptococcus curvatus which are C: N ratio of substrate, civilization manners, the O demand in the civilization medium. Substrate used Many researches with Cryptococcus curvatus chiefly concentrate on using whey permeate in agitation of milk sugar. An attractive feature of this barm is it s able to turn on assortment of substrates. This implicated that many nutrient processing wastes apart from whey permeate can be used as substrates for lipid production. Other than assorted sugars as a C beginning, glycerin is besides an interested feedstock for lipoids production when biodiesel is produced with big commercial graduated table. [ 4 ] Influences on C to N ( C: N ) ratio There are two stage growing rhythm of Cryptococcus curvatus. The first phase is the growing stage where the cells grow up to the high cell denseness with low lipid accretion. The 2nd stage is the nitrogen exhaustion stage which the residuary C beginnings in medium are converted to the signifier of lipid, ensuing in the lipid accretion. When cells grow in the balanced civilization medium, with uninterrupted supply of N, lipid production by Cryptococcus curvatus will be less effectual. Nitrogen facilitate the synthesis of nucleic acid and protein for cell growing and cell division. Oxygen demand The capableness of O transportation is the most of import consideration in aerophilic agitation. The fermenter should be ensured to reassign equal O with high rate into the civilization medium so that non to restrict the growing Cryptococcus curvatus. However, the rate should non be excessively high that cause inordinate energy ingestion. In batch agitation of Cryptococcus curvatus turning on whey permeate, the extremum of the O uptake rate ( OUR ) is 13 mmoles/L/h under N limited status. This is a turning point from the growing stage of Cryptococcus curvatus to lipid accretion stage. The OUR is so bit by bit decreased at N exhaustion which is low oxygen demand with non inordinate cell denseness in fermenter. Therefore, a simple concept fermenter like airlift or bubble column constellation could be utilized. Comparing to the industrial stirred reactor, airlift or bubble column can be erected and constructed on site easy. Fig.1 shows the airlift fermenter design of using pealing sparger. Ring sparger is used to pump air into bill of exchange tubing. The stock is circulated upward in bill of exchange tubing vertically and downward in outer ringed part. The circulation provides good blending features in agitation. Airlift bubble column was used in industrial procedure. It was found that the lipid production rate ( LPR ) in airlift fermenter of 0.5m3 pilot works and 8.2m3 mill was 0.12 g/L/h and 0.06g/L/h severally. Both LPR was much lower comparing to the moved armored combat vehicle reactor on research lab graduated table. Using stirred armored combat vehicle reactor in a fed batch procedure has proven efficient in the growing and lipid production of Cryptococcus curvatus [ Meesters, 1995 ] . However, it is hard to scale up moved armored combat vehicle reactor taking to alter blending features and lessening O transportation rate in larger armored combat vehicle. The optimum status achieved in Meesters, 1995 is hard to execute in big graduated table, ensuing in the slower growing and production rate. Furthermore, when the agitation procedure require high O transportation rates, stirred armored combat vehicle fermenters is non sufficient. Oxygen transportation, good commixture and stirring may go restricting factors of production rate in syrupy systems like high cell denseness agitations. New type of reactor, Surer reactor is used to scale up the agitation. It consists of an external pumped cringle and 2 inactive sociables. Surer reactor mixes the medium exhaustively with no dead country by its forced flow feature. Air bubbles are reduced to really little bubbles by inactive sociables, ensuing in high O transportation rate. Installing more inactive sociables can accomplish much high O transportation rate. Besides, the commixture features will non be affected by the reactor s breadth. Scale up of Cryptococcus curvatus cultivation in Surer reactor achieve LPR 0.42 g/l/h which is much higher than scale up procedure of airlift fermenter 0.06 g/l/h mentioned by [ Davies 1992 ] [ 7 ] Culture manners There are four different civilization manners in cultivation of Cryptococcus curvatus: batch agitation ; fed batch agitation, uninterrupted agitation ; partial recycling agitation. Assorted civilization manners performed otherwise in the lipid production rate. Ykema [ 1 ] found that lipid production rates are faster in uninterrupted civilizations than in batch civilizations. However, highest lipid production rate rates will be achieved in civilization manners that enable the cultivation at high cell densenesss like fed-batch procedure. It was found that the fed-batch agitation performed most effectual in general. The procedure is two phases experiment. During the first stage, there is no restriction on foods, this status facilitate biomass production. The 2nd stage performs in N restrictions which cause lipid accretion. The fatty acerb composing varied in this two stage. The comparative sum of stearic acid C18:0 is low in the first biomass production stage, while the sum of oleic acid C18:1 addition, linoleic acid lessening C18:2 in the 2nd lipid accretion stage. Partial recycling civilizations aloe uninterrupted operation and increased productiveness by extinguishing batch downtime. Though partial recycling cultivation can accomplish a hi ghest lipid production rate, it is merely suited for small-scale operation. [ 4 ] Fed-batch agitation performed most efficaciously see to the big lipid production rate and big graduated table pertinence. Therefore, high lipid production rate can be achieved by seting C/N ratio and choose the civilization modes that the barm cultivated at high cell denseness. [ 1 ] Fig. LPR in different cultivation manner In the 80-90s century, different attacks have been performed to optimise the oil production of barm with the fatty acerb composing comparable to cocoa butter. For this ground the procedure has to increase the sum of steric acid in barm lipoid. It was shown that the consequence of low Os uptake rate altered the fatty acid profile. The grade of impregnation in fatty acid profile was increased by take downing the O uptake rate. With the low O concentration, I-9 desaturase enzyme used to covert stearic acid to oleic acid, elongation enzyme used to change over palmitic to stearic acid, are affected. Hence, the sum of stearic increased. The other straggy used a mutation in which theI-9 desaturase for the transition of strearate to oleate ( see besides fig.1 ) was partly blocked so that stearate accumulated at the disbursal of oleate. This guaranting lipid so had the correct belongingss for its usage as a chocolate butter equivalent. [ 3 ] Familial attack can besides spread out the scope of oils formed in Cryptococcus curvatus. It requires the transmutation and look system for the barm consequence in modifying fatty acerb biogenesis in the barm. I-9 desaturase cistron will be cloned and so to be use as a selective marker for the I-9 desaturase mutation of Cryptococcus curvatus. [ 5,8 ] The barm, Cryptococcus curvatus are possible manufacturers of lipoids similar to vegetable oils and fats. Research on their applications as a dietetic addendum in nutrient or indispensable pharmacological constituents in medical specialty has non progressed to desirable bounds. Since barms are polyploidy in nature, similar to workss, they may be appropriately engeernied so as to synthesise fresh lipoids which may happen public-service corporation in bring forthing value added oils anf fat for usage in the nutrient and biomedical industries. Rerouting of the barm s metabolic tract for the synthesis of biochemically of import polyunsaturated fatty acids has non received much attending. [ 4 ] Future Development Mentions 1. Adrie Ykema, Elizabeth C. Verbree, Martin M. Kater and Henk Smit, Optimization of lipid production in the buttery barm Apiotrichum curvatum in wheypermeate, Applied and Microbiology Biotechnology ( 1988 ) 29:211-218 2. R. Julian Davies, Jane E. Holdsworth and Sarah L. Reader, The consequence of low Os uptake rate on the fatty acid profile of the buttery barm Apiotrichum curvatum, Applied and Microbiology Biotechnology ( 1990 ) 33: 569-573 3. Z. Jacob, Advances in applied microbiology Vol 39, 1993 p.185-208 4. Meesters PAEP, Huijberts GNM, Eggink G. High-cell-density cultivation of the lipid roll uping yeast Cryptococcus curvatus utilizing glycerin as a C beginning. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1996 ; 45:575-9. 5. PATRICIA A. E. P. MEESTERS AND GERRIT EGGINK Isolation and Characterization of a A-9 Fatty Acid Desaturase Gene from the Oleaginous Yeast Cryptococcus curvatus CBS 570, Agrotechnical Research Institute, VOL. 12: 723-730 ( 1996 ) 6. Mainul Hassan, Philippe J. Blanc, Louis-Marie Grangerf Alain Pareilleux A ; Gerard Goma, Influence of Nitrogen and Iron Limitations on Lipid Production by Cryptococcus curvatus Grown in Batch and Fed-batch Culture, Process Biochemistry Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 355-361, 1996 7. Patrica A.E.P. Meesters, Hetty van der Wal, Ruud Weusthuis and Gerrit Eggink, Cultivation of the buttery barm Cryptococcus curvatus in a new reactor with improved commixture and mass transportation characteristic, Biotechnology Techniques, Vol 10 No.4 ( April 1996 ) p.277-282 8. Colin Ratege and James P. Wynn, Advances in applied microbiology, Vol 51, 2002 p.1-46 9. C. Ratledge, Fatty acid biogenesis in micro-organisms being used for Single Cell Oil production, Biochimie 86 ( 2004 ) 807-815 10. Colin Ratledge, Peter Dawson, James Rattray, Biotechnology for the oils and fats industry, American Oil Chemists Society, c1984

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Case study - Essay Example That was the time when she realized that this bag can be popular product for people who loves innovative designing articles like cloths, umbrella, handbags, wallet, makeup bags, lamp shades etc. Clare, mother of Calypso also helped her with the business. Her first year turnover was ?180 000 and she became the London Business person of the year at the age of 22 (Burns, 2011). Calypso and her mother Clare chose to manufacture the bags from UK and use their house as the office. The reasons are: Working from home was advantageous cause their Calypso did not had to pay any rent for her office to anybody. Except that no extra electricity or internet bill there are flexible office time. She could able to work any time in a day and handle any matter whenever they arise without delay. And she got her mother’s help from home (Clippy London, 2013). She was worried that any big and established manufacturer in market can easily steal her idea or copy it so she had to make the sales fast an d regular, to do that she needed the supply unit and manufacturing unit to be close. If the supply unit is thousands of miles away somewhere in china and she had import everything from there it would took couple of valuable days. Instead of that if that if both the unit in UK the orders can be more quickly handled. And once the business start and run smoothly the payment terms for business chain will be regular and spontaneous and it will help the cash flow for her business. An online directory namely Kelly’s online directory (Kelly Search, n.d.) helped her to find out a manufacturer from UK (Smith, 2010). Calypso was a first timer in business field and she had no experience in that domain. Also her volume of business was not very big it was precisely 250 bags only. So for 250 bags going to foreign country to search supplier and renting a separate office would have been more fancy for her cause she was not sure the idea of transparent and graphics bag would hit in the market or not. Her initial customers were family, relatives, friends and those people who appreciated her idea earlier. The official launch of the product was on 2004 during Christmas Fair in Olympia’s Spirit (Stylist.co.uk, n.d.). These three were the main reason of choosing UK as the place of manufacturing for calypso for her fashionable see through bag with customised designs. During start ups and initial growth period manufacturing unit of Clippy was at UK, there were some advantages as well as some disadvantages also. Advantages can be: If supply and manufacturing unit are nearby then time cycle from order of raw materials –delivery of them –and making finished items and delivering them to market become fast and regular. Communication between various members in supply and delivery chain is become easy and effective. In that respective if we look at Clippy’s initial days (start up and initial growth) it was quite expectable for such an innovative product. It was an innovative product no such see through bags with pockets and photos of family and friends on it was available previously in any market. It was an experiment for her to launch it in small scale in UK market from where she also got couple of encouragements from various fashion lovers. So it was like a gamble for her. So it was better to choose her home market rather than foreign market for manufacturing (Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2012). Calypso did not have any experience as a

Hemp economic impact and legalization Research Paper

Hemp economic impact and legalization - Research Paper Example Hemp is a relatively important crop and basing on its different uses it could replace a larger variety of environmental unfriendly crops to enhance economical productions. The forces behind the keeping of hemp illegalization are rather political not environmental in nature. The ability of this product and the byproducts of it are rather scary to many industries especially the petrochemical, liquor and tobacco industries. The fact is that the legalization of hemp would put money in the hands of the farmers and hence totally restructuring our national economy. An article published in 1937 titled â€Å"Hemp: The New Bilion-Dolar crop† named over twenty five thousand possible uses of the hemp plant. This is because it is; a type of Marijuana which cannot get one high could be the reason as to why its popularity still lags behind. Many efforts by different scholars and business people to prove the viability of the product to the economies of the world have been enhanced through var ious ideas. However, there exists some controls over the whole idea since it is described under drugs whose consumption needs control. Despite the fact that this product remained illegal did not deter it from becoming one of the most affecting in the economy of the States in a positive way. This remained so until its legalization through an announcement made by the U.S. Attorney General Eric H. Holder Jr. This came in form of a memorandum that specified that the federal government would not consider it a priority any longer to prosecute the users or traders of the product that broke federal law but complied with State laws concerning this product (Kayla 6). That was so and publicized on the October 19, 2009. This came, as a relief to the people that put the product to different uses inclusive is those that use it for medical purposes. This did not go well with everybody. Some people looked at it as a wrong shot to the U.S. since it was encouraging the breech of Federal laws especial ly those affecting the drug. This simply relates that hemp is a legal item on one hand and yet still illegal on the other. Its legalization has had both positive effects and negative effects to the economy based on the consumption and need that drives one to it. Recent developments show the highly developing and revolving relationship between hemp and humanity. This movement has seen the development of the modern industrial hemp industry that depicts by the presence of hemp clothing, paper, seed-oil products and building materials (Rowan, 2). These developments have had a positive impact to the economies of the world generally specifically in Santa Barbra. The industries surrounding the development of these products that evolve form hemp have had a positive impact on the economies since their development and hence developing trade in the regions from which they hail. A healthy hemp rally circuit gave entrepreneurs in this product the impetus to go deep in investing in this product. This backed by their literature distribution and wears that accompanied the rallies to ensure that they spread the word about their product all over (Rowan, 4).this further bolstered by the formation of the hemp council started in the Los Angeles in 1991. In 1992, a vast number of companies were already in place and hence the success of the plant. The success, quality and economic advantages of the product

Transition metals Essay Example for Free

Transition metals Essay Iron is a transition element. A transition element is an element that forms at least one ion with a partially file d orbital1. Transition metals have several different oxidation states, so can be oxidized and reduced. Oxidizing the Fe2+ will make it Fe3+, and it will lose an electron. Fe3+ e- + Fe3+ Reducing Fe3+ will bring it back to Fe2+, as it will gain an electron. Fe3+ + e- Fe2+ I have been given a solution containing between 1. 1g and 1. 3g of iron ions, a mixture of Fe2+ and Fe3+. To work out how much Iron(II) and Iron(III) is in the mixture, I will start with a titration. I will determine the amount of Fe2+ in the mixture originally by titrating with potassium permanganate, and therefore oxidising the Fe2+ to Fe3+. Potassium permanganate, KMnO4, is self indicating, so when the oxidation point is reached, it changes brown. Then I will reduce the Fe3+ back to Fe2+ with zinc powder and work out the amount of Fe2+ in the remaining mixture by titrating the new mixture against approximately 0. 1 molar potassium permanganate. Then Fe2+ mass in 2nd solution Fe2+ mass in 1st solution = Mass of Fe2+ originally in the solution. This experiment will only give me the Mass of Fe2+ in the solution, so the Fe3+ will need to be worked out by subtracting the Mass off the Fe2+ from the 200cm3 solution used at the beginning. Water solubility: moderate, produces solutions which are intensely coloured, even when quite dilute Specific gravity: 2. 70 Principal hazards This material is harmful if swallowed or inhaled. It is also harmful if absorbed through the skin. Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidizing agent and may react very exothermically with organic materials. Safe handling Wear safety glasses and keep the solid or solution from contact with the skin.. Take care not to allow the solid to come into contact with flammable materials. Emergency Eye contact: Immediately flush the eye with plenty of water. Continue for at least ten minutes and call for medical help. Skin contact: Wash off with plenty of water. Remove any contaminated clothing. If the skin appears damaged, call for medical aid. If swallowed: Call for immediate medical help. Disposal Small amounts of very dilute potassium permanganate solution can be flushed down a sink with a large quantity of water, unless local rules prohibit this. More concentrated solutions and waste solid should be retained for disposal by those in charge of the laboratory. Protective equipment Safety glasses. Protective gloves should not normally be necessary. If they are to be used, nitrile will provide some protection, but may degrade upon contact with solid or solution, so should be checked regularly and replaced if damage is apparent.

Alvin Ailey :: Biography Biographies

Alvin Ailey Alvin Ailey was born on January 5, 1931, in Rogers Texas. His family was a very religious family. He attended Sunday school and church at the Baptist Young Peoples Union. When he was in junior high school, his class went on a trip to the ballet, and that's what inspired him to dance. Seeing the ballet and having his dance teacher, Lester Horton, he was off to a good start. Watching and meeting dancers and actors like Martha Grahm, Doris Humphrey, Charles -Weidman, and Hanya Holm motivated him to pursue a career in dancing. Watching the actors helped him a lot because dancing is very similar to acting; you have to be in, and feel your character. After Lester Horton's death (Ailey's choreographer), Ailey became the director of Horton's dance studio, but in 1958, Ailey founded his own studio and named it, "The Alvin Ailey Dance Company." The purpose of this dance company is "to enrich American modern dance heritage and preserving the uniqueness of black cultural expression" (Willinger 1). The big break for Ailey's dance company was the dance Revalations. which people from all over loved. Since the start of the Dance Company "the Dance Theater has performed for and estimated 19,000,000 people in forty-eight countries and on six continents, earning the Company a reputation as one of the most popular international ambassadors of American Culture." ( Alvin Ailey Dance Company 7). Most African Americans and many races respected Ailey because he was "A leading figure in modern dance, whose dances reflected his black Southern Heritage and are set to jazz or gospel music." (The New Book of Knowledge 587). In Ailey's dance company, there was one dancer that Ailey admired. Her name was Judith Jamison. She provided the inspiration for Ailey to dance to a solo piece, named Cry. Cry was for Alieys mother; dedicated to" all Black women everywhere-mothers." (Alvin Ailey Dance Company 3). Alvin Ailey :: Biography Biographies Alvin Ailey Alvin Ailey was born on January 5, 1931, in Rogers Texas. His family was a very religious family. He attended Sunday school and church at the Baptist Young Peoples Union. When he was in junior high school, his class went on a trip to the ballet, and that's what inspired him to dance. Seeing the ballet and having his dance teacher, Lester Horton, he was off to a good start. Watching and meeting dancers and actors like Martha Grahm, Doris Humphrey, Charles -Weidman, and Hanya Holm motivated him to pursue a career in dancing. Watching the actors helped him a lot because dancing is very similar to acting; you have to be in, and feel your character. After Lester Horton's death (Ailey's choreographer), Ailey became the director of Horton's dance studio, but in 1958, Ailey founded his own studio and named it, "The Alvin Ailey Dance Company." The purpose of this dance company is "to enrich American modern dance heritage and preserving the uniqueness of black cultural expression" (Willinger 1). The big break for Ailey's dance company was the dance Revalations. which people from all over loved. Since the start of the Dance Company "the Dance Theater has performed for and estimated 19,000,000 people in forty-eight countries and on six continents, earning the Company a reputation as one of the most popular international ambassadors of American Culture." ( Alvin Ailey Dance Company 7). Most African Americans and many races respected Ailey because he was "A leading figure in modern dance, whose dances reflected his black Southern Heritage and are set to jazz or gospel music." (The New Book of Knowledge 587). In Ailey's dance company, there was one dancer that Ailey admired. Her name was Judith Jamison. She provided the inspiration for Ailey to dance to a solo piece, named Cry. Cry was for Alieys mother; dedicated to" all Black women everywhere-mothers." (Alvin Ailey Dance Company 3).

Customer Review Essay

1. Describe the Michelson Morley experiment and discuss the importance of its negative result. 2. Calculate the fringe shift in Michelson-Morley experiment. Given that: [pic], [pic], [pic], and [pic]. 3. State the fundamental postulates of Einstein special theory of relativity and deduce from them the Lorentz Transformation Equations . 4. Explain relativistic length contraction and time dilation in special theory of relativity? What are proper length and proper time interval? 5. A rod has length 100 cm. When the rod is in a satellite moving with velocity 0.9 c relative to the laboratory, what is the length of the rod as measured by an observer (i) in the satellite, and (ii) in the laboratory?. 6. A clock keeps correct time. With what speed should it be moved relative to an observer so that it may appear to lose 4 minutes in 24 hours? 7. In the laboratory the ‘life time’ of a particle moving with speed 2.8x108m/s, is found to be 2.5Ãâ€"10-7 sec. Calculate the proper life time of the particle. 8. Derive relativistic law of addition of velocities and prove that the velocity of light is the same in all inertial frame irrespective of their relative speed. 9. Two particles come towards each other with speed 0.9c with respect to laboratory. Calculate their relative speeds. 10. Rockets A and B are observed from the earth to be traveling with velocities 0.8c and 0.7 c along the same line in the same direction. What is the velocity of B as seen by an observer on A? 11. Show that the relativistic invariance laws of conservation of momentum leads to the concept of variation of mass with speed and mass energy equivalence. 12. A proton of rest mass [pic] is moving with a velocity of 0.9c. Calculate its mass and momentum. TUTORIAL SHEET: 1 (Module1: Special Theory of Relativity) . 13. The speed of an electron is doubled from 0.2 c to 0.4 c. By what ratio does its momentum increase? 14. A particle has kinetic energy 20 times its rest energy. Find the speed of the particle in terms of ‘c’. 15. Dynamite liberates about 5.4Ãâ€"106 J/Kg when it explodes. What fraction of its total energy is in this amount? 16. A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of mass 1.0 Kg that move apart at speeds of 0.6 c relative to the original body. Find the mass of the original body. 17. At what speed does the kinetic energy of a particle equals its rest energy? 18. What should be the speed of an electron so that its mass becomes equal to the mass of proton? Given: mass of electron=9.1Ãâ€"10-31Kg and mass of Proton =1.67Ãâ€"10-27Kg. 19. An electron is moving with a speed 0.9c. Calculate (i) its total energy and (ii) the ratio of Newtonian kinetic energy to relativistic energy. Given: [pic] and[pic]. 20. (i) Derive a relativistic expression for kinetic energy of a particle in terms of momentum. (ii) Show that the momentum of a particle of rest mass [pic] and kinetic energy [pic], is given by[pic]. 21. Find the momentum (in MeV/c) of an electron whose speed is 0.60 c. Verify that v/c = pc/E TUTORIAL SHEET: 2(a) (Module2: Wave Mechanics) 1. What do you understand by the wave nature of matter? Obtain an expression of de Broglie wavelength for matter waves. 2. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron and a photon each of energy 2eV. 3. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with a proton moving with a velocity equal to 1/20 of the velocity of light. 4. Show that the wavelength of a 150 g rubber ball moving with a velocity of [pic] is short enough to be determined. 5. Energy of a particle at absolute temperature T is of the order of [pic]. Calculate the wavelength of thermal neutrons at[pic]. Given: [pic], [pic] and [pic]. 6. Can a photon and an electron of the same momentum have the same wavelengths? Calculate their wavelengths if the two have the same energy. 7. Two particles A and B are in motion. If the wavelength associated with particle A is [pic], calculate the wavelength of the particle B if its momentum is half that of A. 8. Show that when electrons are accelerated through a potential difference V, their wavelength taking relativistic correction into account is [pic] , where e and [pic] are charge and rest mass of electrons, respectively. 9. A particle of rest mass m0 has a kinetic energy K. Show that its de Broglie wavelength is given by [pic] TUTORIAL SHEET: 2(a) (Module2: Wave Mechanics) 16. Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Describe gamma ray microscope experiment to establish Heisenberg uncertainty principle. 17. How does the Heisenberg uncertainty principle hint about the absence of electron in an atomic nucleus? 18. Calculate the uncertainty in momentum of an electron confined in a one-dimensional box of length[pic]. Given:[pic] . TUTORIAL SHEET: 2(b) (Module 2: Wave Mechanics) 1. Differentiate between ÃŽ ¨ and IÃŽ ¨I2. Discuss Born postulate regarding the probabilistic interpretation of a wave function. 2. Write down the set of conditions which a solution of Schrà ¶dinger wave equation satisfies to be called a wave function. 3. What do you mean by normalization and orthogonality of a wave function? 4. Show that if potential energy V(x) is changed everywhere by a constant, the time independent wave equation is unchanged. What is the effect on the energy Eigen values? 5. Show that[pic], where [pic]the reduced mass and B is the binding energy of the particles. 6. Show that [pic]is an acceptable eigen function, where k is some finite constant. Also normalize it over the region[pic]. 7. Explain the meaning of expectation value of x. write down the Eigen operators for position, linear momentum and total energy. 8. Show that time independent Schrà ¶dinger equation is an example of Eigen value equation. 9. Derive the time independent Schrà ¶dinger equation from time dependent equation for free particle. 10. For a free particle, show that Schrà ¶dinger wave equation leads to the de-Broglie relation [pic]. 11. Derive expression for probability current density or particle flux. Also , show that the probability density Ï  and probability current density [pic] satisfy the continuity equation[pic] TUTORIAL SHEET: 2(b) (Module 2: Wave Mechanics) 12. Write Schrà ¶dinger equation for a particle in a box and determine expression for energy Eigen value and Eigen function. Does this predict that the particle can possess zero energy? 13. Find the expectation values of the position and that of momentum of a particle trapped in a one dimensional rigid box of length L. 14. The potential function of a particle moving along positive x-axis is given by V(x) = 0for x < 0 V(x) = V0for x [pic] 0 Calculate the reflectance R and transmittance T at the potential discontinuity and show that R+T=1. 15. An electron is bounded by a potential which closely approaches an infinite square well of width[pic]. Calculate the lowest three permissible quantum energies the electron can have. 16. A particle is moving in one dimensional box and its wave function is given by [pic]. Find the expression for the normalized wave function. 17. Calculate the value of lowest energy of an electron moving in a one-dimensional force free region of length 4[pic]. 18. A particle of mass [pic]kg is moving with a speed of [pic] in a box of length[pic]. Assume this to be one dimensional square well problem, calculate the value of n. 19. A beam of electron impinges on an infinitely wide energy barrier of height 0.03 eV, find the fraction of electrons reflected at the barrier if the energy of the electrn is (a) 0.025 eV (b) 0.030 eV (c) 0.040 eV TUTORIAL SHEET: 3(a) (Module 3: Atomic Physics) 1. What are the essential features of Vector Atom model? Also discuss the quantum numbers associated with this model. 2. For an electron orbit with quantum number l = 2, state the possible values of the components of total angular momentum along a specified direction. 3. Differentiate between L-S coupling (Russel-Saunders Coupling) and j-j coupling schemes. 4. Find the possible value of J under L-S and j-j coupling scheme if the quantum number of the two electrons in a two valence electron atom are n1 = 5 l1 = 1 s1 =1/2 n2 = 6 l2 = 3 s2 = 1/2 5. Find the spectral terms for 3s 2d and 4p 4d configuration. 6. Applying the selection rule, show which of the following transitions are allowed and not allowed D5/2 [pic] P3/2; D3/2 [pic] P3/2 ; D3/2 [pic] P1/2 ; P3/2 [pic] S1/2 ; P1/2 [pic] S1/2 7. What is Paschen back effect? Show that in a strong magnetic field, anomalous Zeeman pattern changes to normal Zeeman pattern. 8. Why does in normal Zeeman effect a singlet line always splitted into three components only. 9. Illustrate Zeeman Effect with the example of Sodium D1 and D2 lines. 10. An element under spectroscopic examination is placed in a magnetic field of flux density 0.3 Web/m2. Calculate the Zeeman shift of a spectral line of wavelength 450 nm. 11. The Zeeman components of a 500 nm spectral line are 0.0116 nm apart when the magnetic field is 1.0 T. Find the ratio (e/m) for the electron. 12. Calculate wavelength separation between the two component lines which are observed in Normal Zeeman effect, where – the magnetic field used is 0.4 weber/m2 , the specific charge- 1.76x1011Coulomb/kg and ÃŽ »=6000[pic]. TUTORIAL SHEET: 3(b) (Module 3: Atomic Physics) 1. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission. Derive the relation between the transition probabilities of spontaneous and stimulated emission. 2. What are the characteristics of laser beams? Describe its important applications. 3. Calculate the number of photons emitted per second by 5 mW laser assuming that it emits light of wavelength 632.8 nm. 4. Explain (a) Atomic excitations (b) Transition process (c) Meta stable state and (d) Optical pumping. 5. Find the intensity of laser beam of 15 mW power and having a diameter of 1.25 mm. Assume the intensity to be uniform across the beam. 6. Calculate the energy difference in eV between the energy levels of Ne-atoms of a He-Ne laser, the transition between which results in the emission of a light of wavelength 632.8nm. 7. What is population inversion? How it is achieved in Ruby Laser? Describe the construction of Ruby Laser. 8. Explain the operation of a gas Laser with essential components. How stimulated emission takes place with exchange of energy between Helium and Neon atom? 9. What is the difference between the working principle of three level and four level lasers? Give an example of each type. 10. How a four level Laser is superior to a three level Laser? TUTORIAL SHEET: 3(c) (Module 3: Atomic Physics) 1. Distinguish between continuous X-radiation and characteristic X-radiation spectra of the element. 2. An X ray tube operated at 100 kV emits a continuous X ray spectrum with short wavelength limit ÃŽ »min = 0.125[pic]. Calculate the Planck’s constant. 3. State Bragg’s Law. Describe how Bragg’s Law can be used in determination of crystal structure? 4. Why the diffraction effect in crystal is not observed for visible light. 5. Electrons are accelerated by 344 volts and are reflected from a crystal. The first reflection maxima occurs when glancing angle is 300 . Determine the spacing of the crystal. (h = 6.62 x 10-34 Js , e = 1.6 x 10-19 C and m = 9.1 x10-31 Kg) 6. In Bragg’s reflection of X-rays, a reflection was found at 300 glancing angle with lattice planes of spacing 0.187nm. If this is a second order reflection. Calculate the wavelength of X-rays. 7. Explain the origin of characteristic X-radiation spectra of the element. How Mosley’s law can explained on the basis of Bohr’s model. 8. What is the importance of Mosley’s law? Give the important differences between X-ray spectra and optical spectra of an element? 9. Deduce the wavelength of [pic] line for an atom of Z = 92 by using Mosley’s Law. (R= 1.1 x 105 cm-1). 10. If the KÃŽ ± radiation of Mo (Z= 42) has a wavelength of 0.71[pic], determine the wavelength of the corresponding radiation of Cu (Z= 29). 11. The wavelength of LÃŽ ± X ray lines of Silver and Platinum are 4.154 [pic]and 1.321[pic], respectively. An unknown substance emits of LÃŽ ± X rays of wavelength 0.966[pic]. The atomic numbers of Silver and Platinum are 47 and 78 respectively. Determine the atomic number of the unknown substance. TUTORIAL SHEET: 4(a) (Module 4: Solid State Physics) 1. Discuss the basic assumptions of Sommerfeld’s theory for free electron gas model of metals? 2. Define the Fermi energy of the electron. Obtain the expression for energy of a three dimensional electron gas in a metal. 3. Prove that at absolute zero, the energy states below Fermi level are filled with electrons while above this level, the energy states are empty. 4. Show that the average energy of an electron in an electron gas at absolute zero temperature is 3/5[pic], where[pic], is Fermi energy at absolute zero. 5. Prove that Fermi level lies half way down between the conduction and valence band in intrinsic semiconductor. 6. Find the Fermi energy of electrons in copper on the assumption that each copper atom contributes one free electron to the electron gas. The density of copper is 8.94(103 kg/m3 and its atomic mass is 63.5 u. 7. Calculate the Fermi energy at 0 K for the electrons in a metal having electron density 8.4x1028m-3. 8. On the basis of Kronig – Penney model, show that the energy spectrum of electron in a linear crystalline lattice consists of alternate regions of allowed energy and forbidden energy. 9. Discuss the differences among the band structures of metals, insulators and semiconductors. How does the band structure model enable you to better understand the electrical properties of these materials? 10. Explain how the energy bands of metals, semiconductors and insulators account for the following general optical properties: (a) Metals are opaque to visible light, (b) Semiconductors are opaque to visible light but transparent to infrared, (c) Insulator such as diamond is transparent to visible light. 11. Discuss the position of Fermi energy and conduction mechanism in N and P-type extrinsic semiconductors. TUTORIAL SHEET: 4(b) (Module 4: Solid State Physics) 1. What do you mean by superconductivity? Give the elementary properties of superconductors. 2. Discuss the effect of magnetic field on a superconductor. How a superconductor is different from a normal conductor. 3. Discuss the effect of the magnetic field on the superconducting state of type I and type II superconductors. 4. What are the elements of the BCS theory? Explain the formation of Cooper pairs. 5. Explain the phenomena of Meissner effect and zero resistivity with the help of BCS theory. 6. The metals like gold, silver, copper etc. do not show the superconducting properties, why? 7. Describe the V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode. What do you understand by drift and diffusion current in the case of a semiconductor? 8. Explain the working and characteristics of a photodiode by using I-V curve. 9. Describe the phenomena of carrier generation and recombination in a semiconductor. 10. Define the phenomenon of photoconduction in a semiconductor. Deduce the relation between the wavelength of photon required for intrinsic excitation and forbidden energy gap of semiconductor. 11. Establish the relation between load current and load voltage of a solar cell. Describe the applications of solar cell in brief.

Monde Nissin Corporation (MNC) Essay

Monde Nissin Corporation (MNC) has been incorporated in 1979 and has continuously provided Filipino consumers high quality products and has been a consistent top biscuit player in the market. For more than two decades, MNC has steadily and aggressively risen to be the Philippine’s leading food manufacturer and is carving its niche as one of the most competitive players in the global industry. From its first biscuit, MNC has evolved into a premier food firm. Our company has consistently been among the top corporations in the Philippines and is considered as one of the industry leaders in both noodles and biscuit product categories. Our brand names include Nissin, Monde, Sky Flakes, Fita amongst others for the biscuits category, and Lucky Me Instant Noodles, Lucky Me! Supreme Bowls and Lucky Me! Specials for the noodles category. For more than 3 decades now, Monde Nissin has steadily and aggressively risen to be the Philippines’ leading food manufacturer and is currently carving its niche as one of the most competitive players in the global industry. From its first biscuit, Monde Nissin Corporation has evolved into a premier Food Company which has been among the Philippines’ top 100 companies since year 2000. Monde Nissin products are continuously striving to become the market leaders in their respective categories. Currently, MNC has been producing biscuits and cookies and has a nationwide reach for its distribution channels from supermarkets down to the sari-sari store. To compete with the crackers product line, MNC through its sister company Monde M.Y. San Corporation is a major player in the crackers category. Monde M.Y San Corporation is a Filipino firm originating from an ice cream parlor situated in Escolta in 1935. Three Chinese brothers headed by Mar Yu†¦

The Battle of Tippecanoe in Tecumsehs War

The Battle of Tippecanoe in Tecumseh's War The Battle of Tippecanoe was fought November 7, 1811, during Tecumsehs War. In the early 19th century, Native American tribes sought to oppose American expansion into the Old Northwest Territory. Led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh, the Native Americans began to assemble a force to oppose the settlers. In an effort to prevent this, the Governor of the Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison, marched out with a force of around 1,000 men to disperse Tecumsehs men. As Tecumseh was away recruiting, command of the Native American forces fell to his brother Tenskwatawa. A spiritual leader known as The Prophet, he ordered his men to attack Harrisons army as it encamped along Burnett Creek. In the resulting Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrisons men were victorious and Tenskwatawas forces were shattered. The defeat resulted in a severe setback for Tecumsehs efforts to unite the tribes. Background In the wake of the 1809 Treaty of Fort Wayne which saw 3,000,000 acres of land transferred from the Native Americans to the United States, the Shawnee leader Tecumseh began a rise to prominence. Angry over the treatys terms, he revived the idea that Native American land was owned in common by all the tribes and could not be sold without each giving their consent. This idea had previously been used by Blue Jacket prior to his defeat by Major General Anthony Wayne at Fallen Timbers in 1794. Lacking the resources to directly confront the United States, Tecumseh began a campaign of intimidation among the tribes to ensure that the treaty was not put into effect and worked to recruit men to his cause. While Tecumseh was endeavoring to build support, his brother Tenskwatawa, known as The Prophet, had begun a religious movement which stressed a return to the old ways. Based at Prophetstown, near the confluence of the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers, he began garnering support from across the Old Northwest. In 1810, Tecumseh met with the Governor of the Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison, to demand that the treaty be declared illegitimate. Refusing these demands, Harrison stated that each tribe had the right to treat separately with the United States. Shawnee leader Tecumseh. Public Domain Tecumseh Prepares Making good on this threat, Tecumseh began secretly accepting aid from the British in Canada and promised an alliance if hostilities broke out between Britain and the United States. In August 1811, Tecumseh again met with Harrison at Vincennes. Though promising that he and his brother sought only peace, Tecumseh departed unhappy and Tenskwatawa began gathering forces at Prophetstown. Traveling south, he began seeking assistance from the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) of the Southeast and encouraged them to join his confederacy against the United States. While most rejected his requests, his agitation ultimately led to a faction of the Creeks, known as the Red Sticks, commencing hostilities in 1813. Harrison Advances In the wake of his meeting with Tecumseh, Harrison traveled to Kentucky on business leaving his secretary, John Gibson, at Vincennes as acting-governor. Utilizing his connections among the Native Americans, Gibson soon learned that forces were gathering at Prophetstown. Calling out the militia, Gibson sent letters to Harrison urging his immediate return. By mid-September, Harrison had returned along with elements of the 4th US Infantry and support from the Madison Administration for conducting a show of force in the region. Forming his army at Maria Creek near Vincennes, Harrisons total force numbered around 1,000 men. Moving north, Harrison encamped at present-day Terre Haute on October 3 to await supplies. While there, his men constructed Fort Harrison but were prevented from foraging by Native American raids which began on 10. Finally re-supplied via the Wabash River on October 28, Harrison resumed his advance the next day. Tenskwatawa, The Prophet. Public Domain Nearing Prophetstown on November 6, Harrisons army encountered a messenger from Tenskwatawa who requested a ceasefire and a meeting the next day. Wary of Tenskwatawas intentions, Harrison accepted, but moved his men onto a hill near an old Catholic mission. A strong position, the hill was bordered by Burnett Creek on the west and a steep bluff to the east. Though he ordered his men to camp in a rectangular battle formation, Harrison did not instruct them to build fortifications and instead trusted to the strength of the terrain. While the militia formed the main lines, Harrison retained the regulars as well as Major Joseph Hamilton Daveiss and Captain Benjamin Parkes dragoons as his reserve. At Prophetstown, Tenskwatawas followers began fortifying the village while their leader determined a course of action. While the Winnebago agitated for an attack, Tenskwatawa consulted the spirits and decided launch a raid designed to kill Harrison. Armies Commanders: Americans General William Henry Harrisonapprox. 1,000 men Native Americans Tenskwatawa500-700 men Casualties Americans - 188 (62 killed, 126 wounded)Native Americans - 106-130 (36-50 killed, 70-80 wounded) Tenskwatawa Attacks Casting spells to protect his warriors, Tenskwatawa sent his men to the American camp with the goal of reaching Harrisons tent. The attempt on Harrisons life was guided by an African-American wagon-driver named Ben who had defected to the Shawnees. Approaching the American lines, he was captured by American sentries. Despite this failure, Tenskwatawas warriors did not withdraw and around 4:30 AM on November 7, they launched an attack on Harrisons men. Benefiting from orders given by the officer of the day, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Bartholomew, that they sleep with their weapons loaded, the Americans quickly responded to the approaching threat. After a minor diversion against the north end of the camp, the main assault struck the south end which was held by an Indiana militia unit known as the Yellow Jackets. Standing Strong Shortly after the fighting began, their commander, Captain Spier Spencer, was struck in the head and killed followed by two of his lieutenants. Leaderless and with their small caliber rifles having difficulty in stopping the onrushing Native Americans, the Yellow Jackets began falling back. Alerted to the danger, Harrison dispatched two companies of regulars, who, with Bartholomew in the lead, charged into the approaching enemy. Pushing them back, the regulars, along with the Yellow Jackets, sealed the breach (Map). A second assault came a short time later and struck both the northern and southern parts of the camp. The reinforced line in the south held, while a charge from Daveiss dragoons broke the back of the northern attack. In the course of this action, Daveiss fell mortally wounded . For over an hour Harrisons men held off the Native Americans. Running low on ammunition and with the rising sun revealing their inferior numbers, the warriors began retreating back to Prophetstown. A final charge from the dragoons drove off the last of the attackers. Fearing that Tecumseh would return with reinforcements, Harrison spent the remainder of the day fortifying the camp. At Prophetstown, Tenskwatawa was accosted by his warriors who stated that his magic had not protected them. Imploring them to make a second attack, all of Tenskwatawas pleas were refused. On November 8, a detachment of Harrisons army arrived at Prophetstown and found it abandoned except for a sick old woman. While the woman was spared, Harrison directed that the town be burned and any cooking implements be destroyed. Additionally, everything of value, including 5,000 bushels of corn and beans, was confiscated. Aftermath A victory for Harrison, Tippecanoe saw his army suffer 62 killed and 126 wounded. While casualties for Tenskwatawas smaller attacking force are not known with precision, it is estimated that they suffered 36-50 killed and 70-80 wounded. The defeat was a serious blow to Tecumsehs efforts to build a confederacy against the United States and the loss damaged Tenskwatawas reputation. Tecumseh remained an active threat until 1813 when he fell fighting against Harrisons army at the Battle of the Thames. On the larger stage, the Battle of Tippecanoe further fueled the tensions between Britain and the United States as many Americans blamed the British for inciting the tribes to violence. These tensions came to a head in June 1812 with the outbreak of the War of 1812.

Biography of Polycarp, Christian Bishop and Martyr

Biography of Polycarp, Christian Bishop and Martyr Polycarp (60-155 CE), also known as Saint Polycarp, was a Christian bishop of Smyrna, the modern city of Izmir in Turkey. He was an Apostolic father, meaning he was a student of one of the original disciples of Christ; and he was known to other important figures in the early Christian church, including Irenaeus, who knew him as a youth, and Ignatius of Antioch, his colleague in the Eastern Catholic church. His surviving works include a Letter to the Philippians, in which he quotes the Apostle Paul, some of which quotes appear in the books of the New Testament and the Apocrypha. Polycarps letter has been used by scholars to identify Paul as the probable writer of those books. Polycarp was tried and executed as a criminal by the Roman empire in 155 C.E., becoming the 12th Christian martyr in Smyrna; the documentation of his martyrdom is an important document in the history of the Christian church. Birth, Education, and Career Polycarp was likely born in Turkey, about 69 C.E. He was a student of the obscure disciple John the Presbyter, sometimes considered to be the same as John the Divine. If John the Presbyter was a separate apostle, he is credited with writing the book of Revelations. As Bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp was a father figure and mentor to Irenaeus of Lyons (ca 120–202 C.E.), who heard his preachings and mentioned him in several writings. Polycarp was a subject of the historian Eusebius (ca 260/265–ca 339/340 C.E.), who wrote about his martyrdom and connections with John. Eusebius is the earliest source separating out John the Presbyter from John the Divine. Irenaeus Letter to the Smyrneans is one of the sources recounting Polycarps martyrdom. Martyrdom of Polycarp The Martyrdom of Polycarp or Martyrium Polycarpi in Greek and abbreviated MPol in the literature, is one of the earliest examples of the martyrdom genre, documents which recount the history and legends surrounding a particular Christian saints arrest and execution. The date of the original story is unknown; the earliest extant version was composed in the early 3rd century. Polycarp was 86 years old when he died, an old man by any standard, and he was the bishop of Smyrna. He was considered a criminal by the Roman state because he was a Christian. He was arrested at a farmhouse and taken to the Roman amphitheater in Smyrna where he was burned and then stabbed to death. Mythic Events of the Martyrdom Supernatural events described in MPol include a dream Polycarp had that he would die in flames (rather than being torn apart by lions), a dream that MPol says was fulfilled. A disembodied voice emanating from the arena as he entered entreated Polycarp to be strong and show yourself a man. When the fire was lit, the flames did not touch his body, and the executioner had to stab him; Polycarps blood gushed out and put out the flames. Finally, when his body was found in the ashes, it was said to have not been roasted but rather baked as bread; and a sweet aroma of frankincense was said to have arisen from the pyre. Some early translations say a dove rose out of the pyre, but there is some debate about the accuracy of the translation. With the MPol and other examples of the genre, martyrdom was being shaped into a highly public sacrificial liturgy: in Christian theology, the Christians were Gods choice for martyrdom who were trained for the sacrifice. Martyrdom as Sacrifice In the Roman empire, criminal trials and executions were highly structured spectacles that dramatized the power of the state. They attracted mobs of people to see the state and criminal square off in a battle that the state was supposed to win. Those spectacles were intended to impress on the minds of the spectators how powerful the Roman Empire was, and what a bad idea it was to attempt to go against them. By turning a criminal case into a martyrdom, the early Christian church emphasized the brutality of the Roman world, and explicitly converted the execution of a criminal into a sacrifice of a holy person. The MPol reports that Polycarp and the writer of the MPol considered Polycarps death a sacrifice to his god in the Old Testament sense. He was bound like a ram taken out of a flock for sacrifice and made an acceptable burnt-offering unto God. Polycarp prayed that he was happy to have been found worthy to be counted among the martyrs, I am a fat and acceptable sacrifice. Epistle of St. Polycarp to the Philippians The only surviving document known to have been written by Polycarp was a letter (or perhaps two letters) he wrote to the Christians at Philippi. The Phillippians had written to Polycarp and asked him to write an address to them, as well as to forward a letter they had written to the church of Antioch, and to send them any epistles of Ignatius he might have. The importance of Polycarps epistle is that it explicitly ties the apostle Paul to several pieces of writing in what would eventually become the New Testament. Polycarp uses expressions such as as Paul teaches to quote several passages which are today found in different books of the New Testament and the Apocrypha, including Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, 1 Peter, and 1 Clement. Sources Ari, Bryen. Martyrdom, Rhetoric, and the Politics of Procedure. Classical Antiquity 33.2 (2014): 243–80. Print.Bacchus, Francis Joseph. St. Polycarp. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York City: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Print.Berding, Kenneth. Polycarp of Smyrnas View of the Authorship of 1 and 2 Timothy. Vigiliae Christianae 53.4 (1999): 349–60. Print.Moss, Candida R. On the Dating of Polycarp: Rethinking the Place of the Martyrdom of Polycarp in the History of Christianity. Early Christianity 1.4 (2010): 539–74. Print.Norris, Frederick W. Ignatius, Polycarp, and I Clement: Walter Bauer Reconsidered. Vigiliae Christianae 30.1 (1976): 23–44. Print.Pionius, Alexander Roberts, and James Donaldson. [English Translation of ]the Martyrdom of Polycarp. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Eds. Roberts, Alexander, James Donaldson and A. Cleveland Coxe. Vol. 1. Buffalo, New Yokr: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1888 Print.Thompson, Leonard L. The Martyrdom of Pol ycarp: Death in the Roman Games. The Journal of Religion 82.1 (2002): 27–52. Print.

Theology Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Theology Paper - Essay Example Again, there is the aspect of religions being traditions that have been handed down from old times. Similarly, Freud seems to agree that all religions are the same since it is forbidden to question the authentication of religion. Because of this, Freud points out that any presumptuous thing was met with severest of penalties and that even up to the present, the society criticizes anybody who questions religion. According to Freud, the society is aware of the shortcomings of religions and this is why it does not tolerate the questioning of religious doctrines. The only reason for obeying religious doctrine is because the ancestors believed in the religious doctrines and ideals. Freud seems to indirectly and cleverly say that religion is a mythical affair founded upon ignorance when he says that people simply obey religion because their forefathers believed in them and that these ancestors were far more ignorant than the current generation is (Freud, 33-5). Freud continues that he does not deny the truthfulness of religion and the ability to prove the truth of religious doctrine. By the truth of religious doc trine, Freud means that religion contains values that when disobeyed can lead to social breakdown and that the doubts and fears that ancestors had are the same with the ones in the present generation. Nevertheless, the above discussion concerns Freud’s personal position and understanding of religion. It is interesting how Freud, a psychologist develops a standpoint so wide and authoritative on religion, a field that concerns metaphysical beings. Far from the average idea that all religions are a social construct meant at maintaining and securing social order, not all religions are about the same thing [if the same thing is about maintaining social order]. Some religions such as the Abrahamic faiths [Judaism, Christianity and Islam] are too

The Woman's Role in the Islam Religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Woman's Role in the Islam Religion - Essay Example val of Islam. Similar to other religious, Islam has stipulated a certain position of women in society including their role and social status. The Islam tradition goes back to the 7th century when the revelations transmitted to the Prophet Muhammad who emphasized Islam’s continuity with earlier Semitic traditions. During this period of time, the patriarchal nature of most Islamic societies reinforced the pervasive belief that Muslim women were more subject to the control of men than were women in most other societies. This control was dramatic in the case of Muslim women during the 7-10 centuries. They were secluded immediately upon marriage; that was, they were removed from contact with men (other than relatives) and rarely allowed to move about in public. Islam stated that "marriage is the only road to virtue and that in marriage wives must be submissive and obey their husbands† (Roded 1999, p. 57). Girls generally married between the ages of ten and twelve. Scholars have argued that the definition of power should be broadened to include the invisible control of events by women, which gave them a certain stat us and position. In Muslim societies, kinship and lines of descent were important, and consequently women's power was most visible as they matured and developed the ability to influence the lives of others in their immediate kin and descent groups. In these societies, high-status aristocratic women in particular had power in their ability to influence the actions of their sons, husbands and other male relatives (Roded 1999). Quran and its laws had the profound impact n position and status of women in society and their relations with men. In general, Muslims affirm the Quran to be God's actual words; Muhammad is neither author nor editor, for no human agency influenced the formation of the text. Muhammad does not, therefore, function in the way, for example, the Evangelists do in Christianity. The Islamic tradition is reluctant to allow even this modicum of human involvement in the production of the Quran. Muhammad is not a partner but a go-between, chosen from among men to transmit verbatim God's Word communicated to him through the angel Gabriel. The role of women is to listen and obey, to live the life outlined for them in the revelation and the traditions, and made specific in the law. During the Middle Ages, the role of women in society did not change greatly affected by strict social laws and religious traditions. A blend of Islam and local cultural prescriptions shaped women's lives. In Muslim societies, the local culture was clearly patriarchal, making it difficult to distinguish what part of current culture came from Islam and what pre-Islamic influences remained (Roded 1999). The pre-Islamic record in Iran, Afghanistan and Iraq suggested important public and political roles for royal women. It was clear from historical accounts that the incorporation of Islam into the society profoundly changed the cultural, political, and social conditions under which women lived and worked. Prior to the coming of Islam, women of aristocratic origin had participated in public affairs (Nashat and Beck, 2003). Since the inception of the Islam religion, women were instructed to dress simply and modestly, while all men